The Canadian Observatory on Homelessness - Publications

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Open Access
Aboriginal Homelessness in Canada: A Literature Review
(Canadian Homelessness Research Network, 2014) Patrick, Caryl
This paper presents a comprehensive review of scholarly literature on the topic of Aboriginal Homelessness in Canada. It answers the following four broad inquiry areas through a review and analysis of current (1988-2012), and primarily academic, literature: Inquiry Area #1 - Key Concepts: How are the concepts of ‘homelessness’ and ‘home’ defined, particularly for the Aboriginal population? Is there a unique meaning of homelessness for Aboriginal Peoples? Inquiry Area #2 - Causes: Why are Aboriginal populations (particularly youth, gender minorities, and urban groups) at a disproportionate risk of becoming homeless or over- represented in the Canadian homeless population? Inquiry Area #3 - Experiences: How do Aboriginal Peoples experience homelessness? What is the range of diversity in their lived experiences? Inquiry Area #4 - Action: What has been proposed in the areas of homelessness prevention and solutions for Aboriginal Peoples? What is working? What are some new ways authors are conceptualizing these issues? This literature review also endeavours to highlight gaps and weaknesses that currently exist in the academic literature and suggests future research avenues on this topic. This review is organized around broad themes that emerged throughout the literature which are reflected in the section headings. There is, however, a significant amount of overlap between sections because many subjects and personal experiences are interrelated and complex. This literature review has several target audiences. Since it provides an analysis of scholarly material an academic audience is a primary target. This review may also be of value to policy makers, service providers, politicians and community stakeholders because of its emphasis on solutions and pathways forward. Since it is written in plain language, it is also designed to be accessible to the general population. It is the hope of the reviewer that this document is disseminated as widely as possible, as to draw attention to the national Aboriginal homelessness crisis and hopefully inspire action.
Open Access
Can I See Your ID? The Policing of Youth Homelessness in Toronto
(Canadian Homelessness Research Network, 2011) O'Grady, Bill; Gaetz, Stephen; Buccieri, Kristy
Homelessness, and its visibility, is back in the news in Toronto. Concerns about the scourge of panhandling have once again surfaced in local media with city councillors regularly weighing in on the ‘problem’. With little evidence that there is a dramatic increase in the numbers of people sleeping in parks or ‘aggressively’ panhandling on sidewalks, calls are once again being made for a law and order response to address this highly visible manifestation of urban poverty; to crack down on homelessness with tougher laws and stricter enforcement. All of this raises important questions about how we respond to homelessness in Canada. What does it say about Canadians when popular thought suggests that the appropriate way to address the problem of homelessness is through law enforcement? Is the use of police in dealing with people who are homeless as much a part of the Canadian response to homelessness as is the provision of shelter beds, soup kitchens and street outreach? And perhaps most importantly, what is the impact of a law and order approach to homelessness on the lives of people who experience such extreme poverty? This report sets out to document the criminalization of homelessness in Canada by exploring the relationship between homeless persons – in particular, street youth - and law enforcement officials (both the police and private security). Drawing from over 240 interviews with street youth in Toronto in 2009, as well as a review of official statistics on Ontario Safe Streets Act tickets in Toronto over the past 11 years, we explore the ways in which homelessness has been criminalized through a law and order agenda. Effective policy should be informed by research, not developed as a response to moral panics. Our research raises serious questions about the use of law enforcement as a strategy to address the visibility of homelessness in Canada.
Open Access
Canadian Definition of Youth Homelessness
(2016)
“Youth homelessness” refers to the situation and experience of young people between the ages of 13 and 24 who are living independently of parents and/or caregivers, but do not have the means or ability to acquire a stable, safe or consistent residence. Youth homelessness is a complex social issue because as a society we have failed to provide young people and their families with the necessary and adequate supports that will enable them to move forward with their lives in a safe and planned way. In addition to experiencing economic deprivation and a lack of secure housing, many young people who are homeless lack the personal experience of living independently and at the same time may be in the throes of significant developmental (social, physical, emotional and cognitive) changes. As a result, they may not have the resources, resilience, education, social supports or life skills necessary to foster a safe and nurturing transition to adulthood and independence. Few young people choose to be homeless, nor wish to be defined by their homelessness, and the experience is generally negative and stressful. Youth homelessness is the denial of basic human rights and once identified as such, it must be remedied. All young people have the right to the essentials of life, including adequate housing, food, safety, education and justice.
Open Access
Child Welfare and Youth Homelessness in Canada: A Proposal for Action
(Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press, 2017) Nichols, Naomi; Schwan, Kaitlin; Gaetz, Stephen; Redman, Melanie; French, David; Kidd, Sean; O'Grady, Bill
With the release of Without a Home: The National Youth Homelessness Survey (2016), we now have robust national data on youth homelessness for the first time in Canada. The research findings on the relationship between youth homelessness and child welfare involvement are unsettling: - 57.8% of youth experiencing homelessness reported some type of involvement with child protection services over their lifetime. - 63.1% of youth who are homeless report experiencing childhood trauma, abuse, and/or neglect - a key cause of involvement with child welfare. - 73.3% of youth who became homeless before the age of 16 reported involvement with child protection services. - Compared to the general public (Statistics Canada, 2011), youth experiencing homelessness are 193 times more likely to have been involved with the child welfare system than the general public. - 31.5% of youth who are homeless report their first contact with the welfare system at the age of 6, with 53% reporting continued involvement beyond the age of 16. - Indigenous youth make up 7% of the total population of young Canadians, yet make up half of individuals involved in child protection services (Statistics Canada, 2011). Importantly, Without a Home also found that youth facing structural and systemic disadvantage (e.g., poverty, racism, homophobia) are more likely to experience both child welfare involvement and homelessness. For example, data indicates that LGBTQ2S, transgender, and gender nonbinary youth are more likely to have had child welfare involvement than cisgender and straight homeless youth.
Open Access
Child Welfare and Youth Homelessness in Canada: A Proposal for Action - Executive Summary
(Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press, 2017) Nichols, Naomi; Schwan, Kaitlin; Gaetz, Stephen; Redman, Melanie; French, David; Kidd, Sean; O'Grady, Bill
With the release of Without a Home: The National Youth Homelessness Survey (2016), we now have robust national data on youth homelessness for the first time in Canada. The research findings on the relationship between youth homelessness and child welfare involvement are unsettling.
Open Access
Coming of Age: Reimagining the Response to Youth Homelessness in Canada
(Canadian Homelessness Research Network, 2014) Gaetz, Stephen
The goal of this report is to present an argument for approaching how we respond to youth homelessness in a new way. The report achieves this by pulling together key information about youth homelessness, to better inform how we respond to the problem. As a peer-reviewed research document, Dr. Gaetz draws on an existing base of research in Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States, in order to identify effective approaches to youth homelessness policy and practice. The report also draws heavily on several previous works by Dr. Gaetz, including Live, Learn, Grow: Supporting Transitions to Adulthood for Homeless Youth - A Framework for the Foyer in Canada, and several chapters from the book Youth Homelessness in Canada: Implications for Policy and Practice and in particular, the concluding chapter Ending Youth Homelessness in Canada is Possible: The Role of Prevention. While this is a research report that will appeal to academics, the intended audience is much broader. It has been written in a way to appeal to students, service providers, policy makers and the general public. The key arguments are intended to help inform decision-making in government, communities, and social service agencies. As a research document, it provides an evidentiary base for creating more effective responses to youth homelessness. As a public document, it is intended to inspire change and innovation, with the ultimate goal of contributing to real and effective solutions to youth homelessness in Canada.
Open Access
COVID-19 prevalence and infection control measures at homeless shelters and hostels in high-income countries: a scoping review
(2021) Levesque, Justine; Babando, Jordan; Loranger, Nathaniel; Johnson, Shantel; Pugh, David
Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately impacted homeless populations and service workers, especially within homeless shelter/hostel settings. To date, there have been few evidence syntheses examining outbreaks of COVID-19 among both homeless shelters residents and service workers, nor has there been a critically engaged summary of relevant infection control and prevention (IPAC) measures. This scoping review offers a timely and much-needed synthesis of COVID-19 prevalence within homeless shelters and a review of current and pertinent IPAC measures. Methods: We conducted a scoping review in June 2021 that synthesized academic and grey literature published from March 2020 to July 2021 pertaining to 1) the prevalence of COVID-19 among both residents and staff in homeless shelters and hostels in high-income countries, and 2) COVID-19 IPAC strategies applied in these settings. Two reviewers independently screened the results of the literature search of several databases that included MEDLINE, PsycInfo, and the WHO’s COVID-19 Global Health Portal. All the extracted data was mapped, categorized, and thematically discussed. Results: Thematic analysis of included literature revealed five key themes: 1) the demographics of COVID-19 in homeless shelters, 2) asymptomatic spread, 3) pre-existing vulnerability of the homeless and shelters, 4) the limited application of IPAC, and 5) IPAC effectiveness. Conclusion: This review offers a useful glimpse into the landscape of COVID-19 outbreaks in homeless shelters/hostels and the major contributing factors to these events. The scoping review revealed that there is no clear indication of generally accepted IPAC standards for homeless populations and shelter care workers. This review also illustrated a great need for future research to establish IPAC best practices as well as additional resources for shelter systems to protect residents and staff at homeless shelters/hostels in high-income countries. Finally, the findings from this review reaffirm that homelessness prevention is a key to limiting disease outbreaks, and the associated negative health outcomes in shelter populations.
Open Access
COVID-19 prevalence and infection control measures at homeless shelters and hostels in high-income countries: protocol for a scoping review
(2021) Levesque, Justine; Loranger, Nathaniel; Sehn, Carter; Johnson, Shantel; Pugh, David; Babando, Jordan
Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately impacted people experiencing homelessness. Homeless shelters and hostels, as congregate living spaces for residents with many health vulnerabilities, are highly susceptible to outbreaks of COVID-19. A synthesis of the research-to-date can inform evidence-based practices for infection, prevention, and control strategies at these sites to reduce the prevalence of COVID-19 among both shelter/hostel residents and staff. Methods: A scoping review in accordance with Arksey and O’Malley’s framework will be conducted to identify literature reporting COVID-19 positivity rates among homeless shelter and hostel residents and staff, as well as infection control strategies to prevent outbreaks in these facilities. The focus will be on literature produced in high-income countries. Nine academic literature databases and 11 grey literature databases will be searched for literature from March 2020 to July 2021. Literature screening will be completed by two reviewers and facilitated by Covidence, a systematic review management platform. A third reviewer will be engaged to resolve disagreements and facilitate consensus. A narrative summary of the major themes identified in the literature, numerical counts of relevant data including the COVID-19 positivity rates, and recommendations for different infection control approaches will be produced. Discussion: The synthesis of the research generated on COVID-19 prevalence and prevention in homeless shelters and hostels will assist in establishing best practices to prevent the spread of COVID-19 and other airborne diseases at these facilities in high-income countries while identifying next steps to expand the existing evidence base.
Open Access
Définition canadienne de l’itinérance chez les jeunes
(2016)
«L’itinérance chez les jeunes» renvoie à la situation et à l’expérience que connaissent des jeunes âgés entre 13 et 24 ans qui vivent indépendamment de leurs parents et/ou gardiens et qui n’ont pas les moyens ni la capacité d’acquérir une résidence stable, sécuritaire et permanente. L’itinérance chez les jeunes est un enjeu social complexe, car en tant que société, nous n’avons pas su fournir aux jeunes et à leurs familles les nécessités et les soutiens nécessaires qui leur permettraient d’aller de l’avant dans leurs vies d’une manière sécuritaire et planifiée. En plus d’éprouver des difficultés économiques et de devoir faire face à l’absence d’un logement sécuritaire, de nombreux jeunes sans abri ne possèdent pas d’expérience personnelle de vie indépendante tout en étant peut-être en proie à des changements développementaux considérables (sociaux, physiques, émotionnels et cognitifs). Par conséquent, ils n’auront peut être pas à leur disposition les ressources, la résilience, l’éducation, les soutiens sociaux et les compétences essentielles nécessaires pour favoriser une transition sûre et stimulante vers l’âge adulte et l’indépendance. Peu de jeunes choisissent de devenir des sans-abri et ne veulent pas qu’on les définisse par leur itinérance, et l’expérience d’itinérance est généralement négative et stressante. L’itinérance chez les jeunes est le déni droits de l’homme fondamentaux1, et lorsqu’elle est identifiée en tant que telle, il importe d’y remédier. Tous les jeunes ont droit aux besoins essentiels de la vie, y compris à un logement adéquat, des aliments, la sécurité, une éducation et la justice.
Open Access
Définition de l’itinérance chez les Autochtones au Canada
(Presses de l’Observatoire canadien sur l’itinérance, 2017) Thistle, Jesse A.
L’itinérance chez les Autochtones est une condition humaine décrivant le manque de logement stable, permanent et adéquat des individus, familles ou communautés des Premières nations, des Métis et des Inuits, ou le manque de possibilité immédiate, de moyens ou de la capacité d’acquérir un logement. À la différence de la définition colonialiste commune de l’itinérance, l’itinérance chez les Autochtones ne se définit pas par un manque de structures ou de logement, mais se décrit plutôt et se comprend pleinement à travers une lentille composite de visions du monde autochtone. Celles-ci incluent des individus, des familles et des communautés séparés de leurs relations avec la terre, l’eau, leur région, leur famille, leurs semblables, les autres, les animaux, leurs cultures, leurs langues et leurs identités. Les Autochtones vivant ces types d’itinérance ne peuvent pas se reconnecter culturellement, spirituellement, émotionnellement ou physiquement avec leur identité autochtone ou leurs relations perdues (Aboriginal Standing Committee on Housing and Homelessness, 2012).
Open Access
Facing FAQs: H1N1 and Homelessness in Toronto
(The Homeless Hub Press, 2015) Buccieri, Kristy; Gaetz, Stephen
The homelessness sector of Toronto faced a public health threat from the H1N1 pandemic. This report shares the findings of research undertaken in 2010 and 2011, assessing the pandemic preparedness of the homelessness sector before, during, and after the outbreak. Interviews were conducted with 149 homeless individuals, fifteen social service providers, and five key stakeholders involved in the H1N1 response. This report is divided into five key sections, and uses a question and answer approach to examine the core issues: 1. “Homelessness, Health and Infrastructure in Toronto” examines how the homelessness sector is organized, how well homeless individuals are faring mentally and physically within the city, and how the sector organizes health care services for its clients. 2. “Preparing the Homelessness Sector for H1N1” explores the work that was done prior to the outbreak and the challenges that arose. 3. “H1N1 and the Homelessness Sector Response” examines how the sector performed during the outbreak phase. Included in this section are discussions of operational changes, communication strategies, supplies, vaccination efforts, and infection control measures. 4. “Learning from H1N1” offers a reflection on how prepared the sector is for another outbreak and what challenges would need to be overcome in the event of a more severe pandemic. This report ends with a “Conclusion and Recommendations” section that pulls the key findings together and offers recommendations for creating a more integrated and interconnected sector.
Open Access
Family and Natural Supports: A Framework to Enhance Young People’s Network of Support
(Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press, 2020) Borato, Meryl; Gaetz, Stephen; McMillan, Lesley
This framework introduces and provides an overview of Family and Natural Supports (FNS), a preventive approach to addressing youth homelessness. FNS is a key component of a larger systemic shift in responses to homelessness, away from emergency service provision and instead toward the prevention of youth homelessness. This framework explains FNS, its core principles and guiding philosophy, presents considerations for implementing FNS in communities, and provides case examples of what this work can look like in practice. It also addresses the need for early interventions (including Family and Natural Supports) and the compelling reasons to shift to prevention as the new prevailing response to youth homelessness. The FNS framework builds on the foundational work of the Change Collective’s Working with Vulnerable Youth to Enhance their Natural Supports. The FNS framework was co-developed with practitioners from the Making the Shift Demonstration (MtS DEMs) sites in Toronto, Calgary, Edmonton, Fort McMurray, Grande Prairie, Lethbridge, Medicine Hat, and Red Deer. The framework is also informed by preliminary qualitative data and lessons learned from the eight demonstration projects in Ontario and Alberta that are testing the FNS principles laid out here. This guide will be updated based on ongoing research emerging from these projects, including developmental, implementation, and summative evaluations.
Open Access
Family Matters: Homeless Youth & Eva’s Initiative’s Family Reconnect Program
(Canadian Homelessness Research Network, 2011) Winland, Daphne; Gaetz, Stephen; Patton, Tara
Young people become homeless largely because of challenges they experience within their families. We know well that conflicts within family - whether related to abuse, mental health, or addictions issues of either young people themselves or other family members – often lead young people to the streets. Because of this, most street youth serving agencies largely ignore the potential role of family members in helping people make the transition to adulthood. There are some exceptions, and one of these is the Family Reconnect program of Eva’s Initiatives in Toronto. In the report, Family Matters, this program is examined to evaluate how reconnecting with family may help some young people avoid long term homelessness. In doing this review, the authors raise some important questions about the Canadian response to youth homelessness. They argue for a rather radical transformation of this response, one that reconsiders the role of strengthened family (and community) relations in preventing and responding to youth homelessness.
Open Access
Finding Home: Policy Options for Addressing Homelessness in Canada
(Canadian Homelessness Research Network, 2009) Hulchanski, J. David; Campsie, Philippa; Chau, Shirley; Hwang, Stephen; Paradis, Emily
Finding Home aims to fill a gap in the information available on homelessness by providing an easily accessible collection of the best Canadian research and policy analysis on homelessness.
Open Access
Homelessness in Yellowknife: An Emerging Social Challenge
(Canadian Homelessness Research Network, 2011) Falvo, Nick
here is a considerable amount of visible homelessness in Yellowknife (NWT), yet very little third-party analysis of the situation. This report begins by briefly discussing who is homeless in Yellowknife and then outlines program responses, including emergency shelters and various models of housing. An overview will then be provided of major funding initiatives from the federal and territorial governments, as well as various forms of homelessness assistance provided by the City of Yellowknife. The report concludes by making policy recommendations with respect to the need for increased accountability, shelter standards, more housing options for the homeless, and a public health response to alcohol and drug use.
Open Access
Housing First - Where is the evidence?
(Canadian Homelessness Research Network, 2012) Waegemakers Schiff, Jeannette; Rook, John
n the last ten years a radical transformation has occurred in the attitudes and practices guiding housing programs that provide emergency and long-term housing for homeless people. This shift evolved from linear or step-wise models of either coupling housing with treatment, or of requiring treatment prior to obtaining permanent housing (Treatment Continuum – TC) (Padgett, et al., 2006), to a priority placed on housing without treatment expectations (Brown, 2005). The latter approach has been labelled housing first (HF) and has rapidly acquired wide-spread adoption by communities with 10-year plans to end homelessness in Canada and the U.S. (e.g. Calgary, Toronto, Minneapolis, San Diego, New York) and by mental health service providers seeking housing stability for clients (Newman & Goldman, 2008). Fuelled by some scientific evidence (Atherton & McNaughton Nicholls, 2008), and increasingly made popular by press and housing authorities developing “10 year plans” to eradicate homelessness, housing first has emerged as an increasingly popular approach to addressing homelessness. (The HF approach was embraced by all levels of government in Canada, as evidenced by the Streets to Homes initiative in Toronto and the housing initiatives in Calgary). Despite the rapid uptake of this approach, there is the absence of “best practice” evidence to support this. “Best practice” is commonly understood to imply evidence-based techniques or interventions that have been demonstrated to work well with most persons and have the least potential for adverse results. To the extent that there was some, but not conclusive, evidence that HF was effective for those with mental illness and co-occurring mental illness, the Mental Health Commission of Canada (Mental Health Commission of Canada, 2010), introduced a large, multi-site study of HF in five Canadian cities (referred to as the At Home/Chez Soi project). This project is examining the approach in various political contexts and with differing target populations, thereby including the multi-cultural dimensions essential to Canadian adoption of this approach. Although early results are promising, conclusive answers will not be available for several years. In the interim, adoption of the HF approach is rapidly growing.
Open Access
Housing First in Canada: Supporting Communities to End Homelessness
(Canada Homelessness Research Network, 2013) Gaetz, Stephen; Scott, Fiona; Gulliver, Tanya
Housing First has proven to be a realistic, humane and effective way of responding to homelessness. Housing First in Canada: Supporting Communities to End Homelessness is the first book that examines how this approach has been applied in Canada. The book begins with a framework for Housing First that explains the core principles of the approach, as well as how it works in practice. The book also presents eight case studies of Housing First in Canada, exploring not just the results of its implementation, but how different communities made the shift from ‘treatment as usual’ to a new approach. Here we explore the challenges of making the case locally, the planning process, adapting the model to local contexts (urban vs. small town) or targeted populations (Aboriginal people, youth), and implementation. Much has been learned by communities that have employed Housing First and we conclude the book with a chapter that highlights key lessons learned. The book provides a wealth of information for those who want to understand the concept of Housing First and how to move forward with implementation. The good news is that Housing First works and can be applied in any community.
Open Access
Indigenous Definition of Homelessness in Canada
(Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press, 2017) Thistle, Jesse A.
Indigenous homelessness is a human condition that describes First Nations, Métis and Inuit individuals, families or communities lacking stable, permanent, appropriate housing, or the immediate prospect, means or ability to acquire such housing. Unlike the common colonialist definition of homelessness, Indigenous homelessness is not defined as lacking a structure of habitation; rather, it is more fully described and understood through a composite lens of Indigenous worldviews. These include: individuals, families and communities isolated from their relationships to land, water, place, family, kin, each other, animals, cultures, languages and identities. Importantly, Indigenous people experiencing these kinds of homelessness cannot culturally, spiritually, emotionally or physically reconnect with their Indigeneity or lost relationships (Aboriginal Standing Committee on Housing and Homelessness, 2012).
Open Access
Leading the Way: Reimagining Federal Leadership on Preventing Homelessness
(Canadian Observatory on Homelessness Press, 2017) Gaetz, Stephen; Dej, Erin; Donaldson, Jesse; Ali, Nadia
Before us is a significant opportunity to reimagine the federal government’s leadership role in homelessness. After more than 25 years of declining spending on affordable housing, the Government of Canada is launching a National Housing Strategy (NHS) with a 10-year investment in expanding the supply of affordable housing and enhancing sustainable longterm housing outcomes for Canadians. A key pillar of the NHS will be a renewal and redesign of the existing Homelessness Partnering Strategy. The last renewal of HPS in 2013 saw the Government of Canada play an important leadership role in mobilizing the results of the At Home/Chez Soi study to expand the implementation of Housing First across Canada – in essence, opening the back door to homelessness. As we turn towards a reimagined national strategy on homelessness, the Government of Canada has an opportunity to show leadership by closing the front door, through supporting a shift to homelessness prevention. This means stopping the flow of individuals and families into homelessness, and at the same time being unwilling to wait for such persons to find themselves in desperate situations — situations that can cause irreparable harm — before we help them exit homelessness. The renewed national strategy on homelessness can help make the shift to prevention through supporting communities to act quickly and creatively, to prevent homelessness before it ever begins. Toward this end, the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness (COH) submits a bold vision for a national initiative on homelessness prevention, within a new national strategy on homelessness. The vision presented here can assist the Government of Canada in its commitment to preventing and ending homelessness for generations to come. In this brief we cover the following: - What is homelessness prevention? - Can the Government of Canada play a leadership role in homelessness prevention? - How can the prevention of homelessness be prioritized within a reimagined national strategy on homelessness?
Open Access
Leaving Home: Youth Homelessness in York Region
(Canadian Homelessness Research Network, 2014) Noble, Amanda; Donaldson, Jesse; Gaetz, Stephen; Mirza, Sabina; Coplan, Isaac; Fleischer, David
In York Region, there is a growing awareness of the problem of youth homelessness. In the past many people saw it as a ‘big city’ problem, more likely to occur in places like downtown Toronto or Vancouver. But we now know from research that the factors that drive youth to become homeless are not isolated in big cities, but are also present in urban, suburban and rural areas. This is most certainly true of York Region. The question then becomes, what do we do about it? This report is the culmination of a community engagement process led by United Way York Region and supported by the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness. The goal of this initiative is the development of a more coordinated and integrated systems response to youth homelessness, one designed to support families and help young people stay in their communities, stay in school, and grow into an adulthood characterized by happiness, well-being and opportunity. The Leaving Home report presents the findings from the research project that was conducted over the summer of 2013 with 60 young people from York Region who had experienced homelessness, as well as a number of service providers. Informed by emerging Canadian and international practices, key recommendations are also presented. All are intended to inspire and contribute to a broader conversation about the problem of youth homelessness so that young people and their families get the supports they need to avoid this undesirable outcome.

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